Microneedle electrodes: materials, fabrication methods, and electrophysiological signal monitoring‑narrative review

Flexible, microneedle-based electrodes offer an innovative solution for high-quality physiological signal monitoring, reducing the need for complex algorithms and hardware, thus streamlining health assessments, and enabling earlier disease detection. These electrodes are particularly promising for improving patient outcomes by providing more accurate, reliable, and long-term electrophysiological data, but their clinical adoption is hindered by the limited availability of large-scale population testing. This review examines the key advantages of flexible microneedle electrodes, including their ability to conform to the skin, enhance skin-electrode contact, reduce discomfort, and deliver superior signal fidelity. The mechanical and electri-cal properties of these electrodes are thoroughly explored, focusing on critical aspects like fracture force, skin penetration efficiency, and impedance measurements. Their applications in capturing electrophysiological signals such as ECG, EMG, and EEG are also highlighted, demonstrating their potential in clinical scenarios. Finally, the review outlines future research directions, emphasizing the importance of further studies to enhance the clinical and consumer use of flexible microneedle electrodes in medical diagnostics.