Childhood gender-typed behaviour, sexual orientation, childhood abuse and post-traumatic stress disorder: a prospective birth-cohort study

Anna Sophia Warren, Kimberley A. Goldsmith, Katharine A. Rimes*

*Corresponding author for this work

Research output: Contribution to journalArticlepeer-review

Abstract

ALSPAC birth-cohort data were analysed to assess prospective associations between childhood gender nonconformity (CGN), childhood/adolescent abuse, and adulthood PTSD symptoms. Structural equation models assessed whether abuse mediated the relationship between CGN and PTSD. Sex and sexual orientation differences were investigated. For females, higher parent-rated CGN at 30, 42 and 57-months was associated with mother-reported abuse, self-reported physical/psychological abuse, and/or self-reported sexual abuse. Higher CGN at 30-months was associated with more PTSD symptoms at 23 years. Self-rated CGN in males and females, and parent-rated CGN in males, were not associated with abuse or PTSD. Sexual minority identification was associated with higher CGN and abuse and for females, PTSD symptoms. In females, the relationship between greater CGN at 30-months and PTSD symptoms was separately mediated by each abuse variable. Self-reported sexual abuse was no longer a significant mediator after sexual orientation adjustment. Self-reported physical/psychological abuse significantly mediated the association alone when it was entered together with mother-reported abuse, even after sexual orientation adjustment. In conclusion, childhood gender nonconformity in females may increase the risk for adult PTSD symptoms, possibly mediated by childhood abuse. In females, mediation of the relationship between CGN and PTSD by sexual abuse may be particularly relevant for sexual minority individuals.

Original languageEnglish
Pages (from-to)360-375
Number of pages16
JournalInternational Review of Psychiatry
Volume34
Issue number3-4
DOIs
Publication statusPublished - 2022
Externally publishedYes

ASJC Scopus subject areas

  • Psychiatry and Mental Health

Keywords

  • childhood abuse
  • Gender nonconformity
  • post-traumatic stress disorder
  • prospective
  • sexual orientation

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