Awareness is necessary for differential trace and delay eyeblink conditioning in humans.

Squire et al. have proposed that trace and delay eyeblink conditioning procedures engage separate learning systems: a declarative hippocampal/cortical system associated with conscious contingency awareness, and a reflexive sub-cortical system independent of awareness, respectively (Clark and Squire, 1998; Smith et al., 2005). The only difference between these two procedures is that the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) overlap in delay conditioning, whereas there is a brief interval (e.g., 1s) between them in trace conditioning. In two experiments using the same procedure as Clark and Squire's group, we observed differential conditioning only in participants who showed contingency awareness in a post-experimental questionnaire, with both trace and delay procedures. We interpret these results to suggest that, although there may be multiple brain regions involved in learning, these regions are organized as a coordinated system rather than as separate, independent systems.